15 藤原京
大海人皇子、即位して天武天皇とおなりになり、御在位十五年でおかくれになります
と、次には皇后が御位をお継ぎになり（持統天皇）、十一年後に御孫文武天皇にお譲り
になります。この三代三十数年の間に、国の体制が、段々とととのえられて、それが次
の奈良時代に花と咲き匂うようになるのです。例をあげるならば、歴史の編修がその一
つです。天武天皇の十年（西暦六八一年）、川島皇子や忍壁皇子、その他十人ばかりに
命じて、帝紀及び上古の記録を整理させられると共に、別に稗田阿礼と云う、記憶力抜
群の青年（時に二十八歳）に命じて、太古からの口伝を一筋にまとめて朗誦せしめられ
ました。その前者は、やがて日本書紀となって完成し、後者はまた、書きおろされて古
事記となるのです。（中略）
次ぎに持統天皇の八年に、藤原京を作ってお遷りになりました。これ以前は、帝都と
云っても万事簡略で、御一代ごとに皇居が変わり、或いはまた御一代の中にも、いくつ
かお遷りになる事があり、その皇居を中心として政治をとる役所、政治に当たる官吏が
集まったのでした。そして中には、仁徳天皇のように難波（大阪府）においでになった
り、天智天皇の如く大津（滋賀県）にお遷りになったりした事もありますけれども、大
抵は大和（奈良県）の内であり、殊に推古天皇以後は、大和の内の飛鳥（奈良県高市郡
明日香村）地方に限って皇居をお定めになりました。推古天皇の豊浦宮、舒明天皇の飛
鳥岡本宮、皇極天皇の飛鳥板蓋宮、斉明天皇の飛鳥川原宮、天武天皇の飛鳥浄見原宮な
ど、いずれも飛鳥地方の内で、御選定になったものでした。
かように御一代ごとに変わるのでは、建築も永久的でなく、都市としても壮麗なもの
を期待する事は出来ません。そこで今、持統天皇の四年、天皇は重臣を従えて、藤原の
現地を御検分になり、ここに宮殿を建てて、八年の十二月、お遷りになりました。その
都全体は、南北十二条に分かち、その一条は左京も右京もそれぞれ四坊に別れ、その北
方の中央には、十六坊に相当する広さの球場があり、その中に大極殿、十二の朝堂、東
西の朝集堂があったでしょう。整然たる都市、堂々たる宮殿の現出に、人々は非常な感
激を覚えたでしょう。（中略）
文武天皇の御代に、律令が制定せられました。律と云うのは、「しては、いけない」
と規制するもの、刑法と云えばよいでしょう。令は「すべし」と云うもの、官職規定が
、之に当たるでしょう。それらは天智天皇の御代に、先ず手を着けられ、天武天皇の御
代に更にととのえられましたが、文武天皇の御代にまた改めて制定せられ、大宝元年（
西暦七〇一年）に完成しました。律が六巻、令が十一巻、その中には、後世失われて無
くなった部分もあるが、大部分は元のまま残っており、また無くなった部分も、他の書
物に引用せられている文を拾い集めて、大抵元の形が分かるようになっています。
今大宝令の中で、官庁の役人の組織を見ますと、最初に神祇官、次ぎに太政官となっ
ています。神祇官の方が太政官より重いと云うわけでは無いが、神を尊んで、神事は他
の一切の事に先行すると云う考えから、之を太政官の前に置かれたのでしょう。太政官
には、少納言局、左弁官局、右弁官局の三つがあって、少納言、左大弁、右大弁が、そ
れぞれその局の責任をとります。そしてその三局の上に、四人の大納言があり、その上
に右大臣一人、またその上に左大臣一人、ここで太政官の政務は統括されますが、その
また上に太政大臣があります。これは天皇の御指南役となり、国民の理想像となり、ひ
ろく外国からも尊敬せられる事を必要とするので、「その人無ければ則ち闕けよ」とあ
って、適当な人物がいない時には、欠員のままで置く事になており、よって之を則闕（
そっけつ）の官と云いました。
太政官の下にあって行政事務をとるものは八省ですが、それは四つずつに分かれて、
左右の大弁に附けられています。
左大弁 中務省（宮中の政務）
式部省（礼式･教育･査察）
治部省（音楽･僧尼･外交）
民部省（戸籍･租税）
右大弁 兵部省（兵士･軍事）
刑部省（裁判･処刑）
大蔵省（貨幣･租税）
宮内省（宮中の御用）
これが中央官庁のあらましですが、地方には、都に左京職･右京職があり、九州には大
宰府が置かれ、国には国司、郡には郡司が置かれました。それらの役所の官吏は、それ
ぞれ、「かみ」「すけ」「じょう」「さかん」の四等に分けられ、上下の秩序を明らか
にし、権限と責任とを混雑しないようにしてありました。その「かみ」「すけ」等は、
役所によって漢字は違った文字を使って、しかも読む時は同じでした。たとえば、「か
み」に、卿もあれば、頭もあれば、督もあれば、また守もあり、「すけ」に、輔もあれ
ば、亮もあり、佐もあれば、介もあると云う風でした。それ故に、文字を見れば、どの
役所かが大抵分かるのです。
こり等の官制はその後、いくらか変化がありました。たとえば、中納言が置かれたり
、参議が新設せられたり、検非違使が出来たりしましたが、大体は元のまま長く伝わっ
て、明治十八年に及んでいます。大宝元年から明治十八年に至ると云えば、この官制は
千百八十四年の間、生きつづけていたわけあります。日本と云う国の国柄は、こう云う
ところにもよく現れています。
大宝元年に、今一つ注意すべき事があります。そりは遣唐使を任命された事です。即
ちその正月、粟田真人を執節使に任じ、高橋笠間を大使とし、その下に副使以下の随員
を附けて、翌年六月出発させられました。船の準備その他に、一年かかったわけです。
出発してより二年後の慶雲元年七月、真人は帰って来ましたが、その報告が面白い、海
を渡って唐へ上陸した時、先方の人が尋ねた。「何の国のお使いですか。」答えて云う
、「日本国の使です。」そして今度はこちらから尋ねた、「此処は何処ですか。」先方
は答えた、「大周（だいしゅう）の楚州（そしゅう）塩城県（えんじょうけん）です。
」また尋ねた、「今までは大唐（だいとう）であったのに、何時大周と改められたので
すか。」先方は答えた、「大唐の高宗亡くなって後、則天武后（そくてんぶこう）即位
して皇帝となり、国号を大周と改められたのです。」問答が一段落ついたところで、先
方の人が云うには、「海を越えて東に日本国があって、その国民は経済的にも富み栄え
ているが、精神的には礼儀にあついので、君子国と云われているとは、しばしば耳にし
たところですが、今使節を見ると、まことに清らかな風貌であり、礼にかなった態度で
、かねての噂に違わぬ事が分かりました。」こう云って別れ去った、と云うのです。こ
の報告は面白いでしょう。唐の太宗･高宗の世、勢力は未曽有の隆盛を誇った事、前に述
べた通りですが、その高宗の没後、皇后の則天武皇后が国を奪い、その革命は一時成功
して、十五年間、唐を改めて周と号したのでしたが、それがこの報告にも現れています
。またこの報告によれば、遣唐使の船は、九州から西南に海を渡って、揚子江の流域へ
向かって事が分かります。文武天皇の御代には、種子島･奄美大島等の人々、朝廷より位
を賜ったり、薩摩の国では賊を平らげて、防備をきびしくしたりした事が見えています
から、遣唐使の船が、南方航路をとった事と併せ考えて、国威が西南方に延びた事が分
かります。
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15 The Fujiwara Capital
Prince Oh-ama ascended and became Emperor Tenmu (r. 672-686). He passed away
after a reign of fifteen years. His Empress became the successor (Empress
Jitou, r. 687-697), and after eleven years she retired to have her grandson
succeed to the throne, becoming Emperor Monmu (r. 697-707). During these three
reign, a span of more than thirty years, the structure of the nation was
progressively organized, reaching its maturity in the subsequent Nara period.
One illustration is the compilation of history. In the 10th year of Emperor
Tenmu's reign (681), an imperial decree was given to Prince Kawashima, Prince
Osakabe and ten others, to organize the imoerial history and the records of
antiquity. Separately, Hieda no Are, a young man of twenty-eight with a
prodigious memory, was ordered to memorize and recite the orally-transmitted
legends of ancient times. The former was completed as Chronicles of Japan
(Nihon Shoki), and the latter, when transcribed, became Record of Ancient
Matters (Kojiki). (an omission)
In the 8th year of Empress Jitou's reign (694), the Fujiwara Capital was built
and the court was moved. Previois to this, the imperial capital was simple and
frugal in every aspect. The palace change every reign, or even within the same
reign. The government offices, where the officials gathered to work, were
built surrounding the palace. Some, such as Emperor Nintoku (r. 313-399), moved
to Naniwa (Ohsaka Prefecture), or, as was the case with Emperor Tenji, to Ohtsu (Shiga
Prefecture). But generally the capitals were located within Yamato Province
(Nara Prefecture). In particular, after Empress Suiko (r. 592-628), the palace
was located within the area called Asuka (now Asuka village, Takaichi District,
Nara Prefecture) as: Toyoura Palace (Empress Suiko), Asuka no Okamoto Palace
(Emperor Jomei), Asuka no Itabuki Palace (Empress Kougyoku), Asuka no Kawara
Palace (Empress Saimei), and Asuka no Kiyomigahara Palace (Emperor Tenmu).
Such frequent change would not permit the construction of permanent buildings,
and nothing grand could be expected as a capital. In the 4th year of Empress
Jitou's reign (690), the Empress paid a visit to the Fujiwara area, accompainied
by the ministers. She ordered a palace to be built there, and her residence was
moved in the 12th month of the 8th year (694).
This capital was divided by twelve streets, in north-south and east-west
directions. One street was divided into four blocks to the right, and four
blocks to the left. In the center, to the north, a palace stood in the area
equivalent to sixteen square blocks. Within the palace, there was the Great
Hall of State, twelve court chambers, and two Halls of Assembly of Officials to
the west and to the east.
The sudden appearance of such a grand palace and a perfect city must have exci
ted the people greatly. (an omission)
During the reign of Emperor Monmu (r. 697-707), a code of laws was proclaimed.
It consisted of two parts: first the prohibitions, or criminal codes where
stipulations start with "you should not," and second, the regulations regarding
officials' work, where stipulations start with "you should." Originally this
code was conceived during the reign of Emperor Tenji (r. 668-671). It was
edited during the reign of Emperor Tenmu (r. 672-686), and re-instituted during the
reign of Emperor Monmu, in the first year of Taihou era (701). It consists of
six volumes of prohibitive codes, and eleven volumes of regulative codes. Some
were dispersed in later years, but most of them are extant; the dispersed parts
have been reconstructed from citations in other writings, so we can obtain a
generally accurate understanding of this code in its original state.
Let us look at the organization of the government. First comes the
Commissioners of the Shintou religion, then comes the Council of State. This
does not mean that the Commissioners of the Shintou religion were more
important than the Council of State, but the thought behind it was that worship
of the Gods, and the relevant Shintou ceremonial matters, come before all. In
the Council of State there were three offices: Lesser Counsellor's Office,
Office of the Controller of the Left, and Office of the Controller of the
Right, named after their respective heads. Above the three offices, there were
four Major Counsellors. Above them was the Minister of the Right, and above him, the
Minister of the Left, who ruled the entire business of the Council of State.
Then the rank of Chancellor came on top of all of them. The Chancellor
counselled the Emperor, served as a model for the people, and must command the
respect of foreign nations. Thus the code states: "If an appropriate person is
not available, leave the position vacant." As the position was actually left
vacant on occasion, it came to be called "To-Be-Left-Vacant Office."
Under the Council of State were eight ministries. These were divided into two
sets of four offices each, supervised by the Major Controllers of the Left and
the Right.
Controller of the Left -
Central Affairs (palace governmence),
Ceremonial (ceremony, education, inspection),
Civil Affairs (music, clergy, foreign affairs),
Popular Affairs (registration, tax)
Controller of the Right -
War (soldiers, military affairs),
Punishments (trials, execution),
Treasury (minting, tax),
Imperial Household (palace command)
The above was the structure of the central government. In addition, there were
Mayors of the Left and the Right in the capital; the Dazaifu government in
Kyuushuu; Provincial Governors in the sixty-six provinces, and District Heads
in the Districts. In these offices the officials were ranked in four grades:
Director-General, Vice Director, Secretary, and Vice Secretary, to delineate
ranks so that authority and responsibilty would not be confused. The Chinese
characters for these ranks difdered according to the office, although the
pronunciations were the same. For example, Director-General, rendered as
"kami," was spelled with the characters,
卿 頭 督 守
and for Vice Director, rendered as "suke," there were
輔 亮 佐 介
Thus one could discern the office to which an official belonged by looking at
the characters.
This system of government was subsequently changed to some degree. For
example, Middle Counsellor was instituted, the position of Cousultant was
created, and the Metroporitan Police came into existence. However, most of the
offices were preserved over a long time, until the 18th year of Meiji era
(1885) - a span of 1184 years since the first year of Taihou era (701). Here
again we perceive the national character of Japan.
Another noteworthy event took place in the first year of Taihou (701), when an
Envoy to China was appointed. In the first month of that year, Awata no Mahito
was appointed Envoy, and Takahashi no Kasama, Ambassador. Accompanying
officials such as Vice Envoy were appointed, and they left in the 6th month of
the next year. It took more a year to prepare the ships and supplies. Two years
after their departure, in the 7th month of the first year of Keiun era (704),
Awata no Mahito returned. His report is interesting.
Crossing the sea, they reached Tang Dynasty China. A Chinese person asked
Awata no Mahito, "From which country were you sent ?" THe answer: "From Japan."
In turn the Japanese asked, "Which country is this ?" The answer: "Yancheng
Prefecture, Province of Chu, in the Great Kingdom of Zhou." The Japanese asked,
"But it was the Great Kingdom of Tang. When was it changed to Zhou ?" The answer:
"After Emperor Gaozong of Great Tang passed away, Empress Wu ascended the
throne, and changed it into Great Zhou."
Next the Chinese said, "I have always heard that there is a country across the
sea to the east, called Japan. The people there are prosperrous, and since
they are courteous, it is also called a country of gentlemen. Now I see the
Japanese Envoy. Your countenance is honest, you attitude is in accordance with
rites. I see that the story is true." And they bade farwell.
An intriguing report, indeed. As explained, the power of Tang Dynasty China
during the reign of Emperors Taizong and Gaozong was unprecedented. After the
death of Emperor Gaozong, the Empress usurped the kingdom, and her revolution
was successful for fifteen years, during which the name of the country was
changed to Zhou.
Further, according to this report, the ships of the Envoy to China saided
south-west from Kyuushuu, heading to Yangzi River. A record states that during
the reign of Emperor Monmu (r. 687-707), the court conferred ranks upon the
people of the southern islands, such as Tanegashima Island and Amami Ohshima
Island. In the Province of Satsuma (Kagoshima Prefecture), the court subdued
rebels and tightened its defence. Combining this information with the fact that
the Envoy to China went south, we understand that the authority of the
Japanese court extended to the south-west extremity of the Japanese islands.
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少年日本史 (平泉澄)
The story of Japan （Hiraizumi Kiyoshi)
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